The process of failure analysis requires the exploitation of as many physical phenomena as possible. To this end, we have seen how engineers have used the properties of electron beams, liquid crystals, and a host of other physical effects in order to analyze defective chips to improve manufacturing, storage and transportation procedures. Specifically, the scanning electron microscope or SEM involves focusing a beam of electrons onto a sample so that they scatter and form an extremely clear image at miniscule resolutions. While this is a powerful application, we can achieve more or less the same effect using a focused ion beam instead. The focused ion beam or FIB failure analysis technique involves the usage of heavier and positively charged ions in the same setup which is used for the scanning electron microscope.

And ion is very different from an electron. For the purposes of failure analysis, we use only positively charged ions – mostly from the element gallium. However in addition to having a charge that is opposite to that of electrons, they are also far heavier since they comprise of an entire atomic nucleus with both protons and neutrons that are incomparably heavier to a mere electron. For this reason, it is more difficult to manipulate a focused ion beam compared to a beam of electrons. But with a few tweaks the same apparatus that is used for the scanning electron microscope can double up for using a focused ion beam as well.

Because focused ion beams carry far more momentum than an ordinary electron owing to their heavier weight, the secondary effect is the sputtering of atoms off the surface of the semiconductor. While this effect is not desirable in many cases, it can be useful for the purposes of failure analysis when trying to obtain an image of a cross-section of a particular layer of the chip. Because an FIB is capable of erasing individual atoms off the surface of the sample, it can also be used to prepare extremely thin slices of the specimen for Transmission Electron Microscopy or TEM for short. TEM is the name for the technology used when a focused beam of electrons is aimed at an extremely thin sample of the specimen. Instead of scattering like they do with an electron microscope, the beam passes through it instead allowing for extremely powerful resolutions.

Other applications of FIB failure analysis include the ability to coat the integrated circuit with an extremely fine layer of some substance. The focused ion beam is still a relatively new technology and failure analysis engineers are still experimenting in order to uncover the various ways they can be exploited for our purposes. Click here to learn more.

The field of failure analysis is probably one of the most underestimated in the semiconductor industry. Integrated circuits fall into an entirely separate category when compared to every other manufactured product. To start off with, they are produced in quantities that are simply unimaginable. Just think of the role that electronic circuits play in our everyday lives. They don't just operate inside obviously complex machinery such as a PC or an MP3 player but in every piece of electronic equipment that is even remotely complex – like a toaster. We may not realize it but we rely upon the dependability of these IC chips for our very lives day in and day out. When it comes to having confidence in a piece of electronic equipment, it's hard to pick a better example. How then do integrated circuit manufacturers limits the number of failed ICs given the staggering output? The answer lies in the meticulous semiconductor failure analysis industry which painstakingly evaluates each and every defective chip and uses that information to backtrack and update the manufacturing, storage and transportation processes to ensure that it doesn't happen again.

Being a failure analyst is very much like being a detective. You have to use every single piece of evidence available to you in order to ascertain the cause of the problem. In order to do this, they make use of a wide range of physical phenomena and manipulate them to achieve the results they desire. There is literally no limit on the ingenuity and innovativeness of the techniques used. For example, we know that certain substances known as liquid crystals are very sensitive to a change in temperature. Their molecules exhibit certain polarization behaviors when this happens. One does not imagine that such an esoteric phenomena could be of any use. But in the field of failure analysis, liquid crystals are routinely used in order to pick up on tiny heat differentials which can isolate the site of an electrical failure.

Similarly electron microscopes, acoustic technologies, x-rays and electron bombardment are all used by semiconductor failure analysis companies to get to the bottom of a defective chip. What is equally important however is the process of narrowing down the problem by extensive evaluation of the circumstances in which the chip failed in order to reduce the time and effort necessary for a conclusive determination.

As we uncover more and more of the physical world's properties, we can rest assured that semiconductor failure analysis engineers will be on the lookout for new and innovative ways to make use of them in the pursuit of enhancing the already substantial reliability of on integrated circuits today. Click here to find out more.

Very often the process of failure analysis on an integrated circuit requires the destruction of the chip. Of course, engineers try their best to use techniques that don't require this to happen but sometimes it has to be done either for verification, to see the defect firsthand, or simply because there is no suitable alternative. Understandably, the process of opening a chip up is very delicate and has to be performed with the utmost care. This is not only because integrated circuits are extremely minute, but because we don't want the process to destroy or otherwise interfere with the defect that they're trying to see. The procedure is called decapsulation and it involves a large number of steps. Sometimes though what we really need is to isolate a single plane within the integrated circuit. For this, we have to use a process called cross-sectioning which involves stripping away all the layers above it.

Cross-Sectioning a PCB

To start off with, we cut up the chip so that we are only left with that section of the plane which we want to examine. Having any extra material around will only make the process more susceptible to error. We then immerse the chip into a slow setting resin and pour it into a vacuum in order to reduce the chance of any air bubbles. With a chip firmly encased and securely mounted, we can begin the PCB cross-section.

A diamond cutter is then used to saw open the chip at the plane that is as close to the one we are interested in as possible. Understandably, the closer we get to it the better chance we have of a flawless decapsulation procedure. The entire proceeding is more of an art than a science. It is said to require a failure analysis engineer several years before they can call themselves experts in doing it properly.

Once we have arrived close to the destination plane, we can proceed to grind it down using increasingly fine materials and finish up with a polishing once we come close enough. If all has gone as expected, the exposed plane should now be visible for viewing using any method that is best. Electron microscopy would be a great help here if we need to obtain extreme close-up photographs.

A PCB cross-section failure analysis is probably one of the most delicate operations in the entire gamut of methods available to us. It is due to procedures like this that we are able to rely so heavily on the electronic circuits that run our lives every day. Click here to find out more.

The failure analysis of an integrated circuit is one of the most important processes by which we continuously improve the reliability of the electronics that we use everyday. IC failure analysis labs are places where defective chips are sent so we can find out what went wrong and incorporate our learnings right into the manufacturing itself so that we can prevent the same mistake from happening again. While it's comforting to quote low error rates in the manufacture of integrated circuits, the sheer volume of production of these chips is so large that even miniscule percentages translate into large absolute numbers. Because of this, failure analysis and detection in the world of integrated circuits is to be taken far more seriously than with other manufactured products. In addition, the extreme miniaturization of electronic packages means that failure analysis is an art by itself requiring a great deal of time and effort before we can successfully isolate what has gone wrong.

There are several techniques which are used in order to pry out the secrets of a failed electronic package. A great deal depends on the experience of the failure analysis engineer who has to decide which method to apply in what order. Some techniques such as scanning with an electron microscope are nondestructive which leaves the chip open for further investigation if necessary. Other processes like decapsulation cut it open for visual confirmation of a defect. If possible, IC failure analysis labs use nondestructive techniques as far as possible so as to preserve the chip for later reference and further testing. Many times however it is imperative to break it open to reach the source of the problem. Often, such methods give a hint or a clue as to what has wrong and the final procedure of either cross sectioning or decapsulation provides verification.

Depending on the type of malfunction the chip is exhibiting, failure analysis engineers apply a wide range of techniques for error detection. For example, when we need visual confirmation of a certain type of defect, we can use tools such as x-ray spectrography or electron microscopy. Electrical defects on the other hand can sometimes best be detected by an analysis of the heat emanating from the circuits via thermal imaging or using liquid crystals. Yet other defects such as hairline fractures and voids lend themselves well to analysis by acoustic means similar to how sonar is used to detect structures on the ocean floor.

IC failure analysis labs utilize a wide range of phenomena to get to the heart of the problem. It is due to their untiring efforts that we are able to confidently use these electronic packages in our daily lives without hesitation.

Sometimes it is necessary to decapsulate or open up a chip for further verification of the results obtained by nondestructive testing. We have seen several methods which achieve this such as acid etching and laser decapsulation. However, sometimes we need to actually segment the chip in order to isolate a particular plane of interest. This process is called cross sectioning and is performed after all the other possible tests have taken place. This procedure destroys the chip entirely and therefore it's important to be fairly sure of yourself before proceeding since you won't get a chance to redo any of the steps involved.

Proper cross-sectioning is often held to be more of an art than science. It can take a failure analysis engineer several years to properly develop the proficiency necessary to perform a fine piece of cross sectioning. This is because it involves a number of steps and by its very nature can completely ruin any further prospect of performing failure analysis tests. It's often better to not do this in the first place rather than do a bad job.

A great deal of preparation has to be performed before the actual procedure of cutting the chip open. In the first place, it has to be encapsulated in order to improve its durability. For this purpose, it is encased in a slow setting resin which is poured into a vacuum to minimize the chances of air bubbles spoiling the process. Once it is firmly encased in this, it has to be mounted firmly so as to remain almost stationary during the cutting procedure.

The integrated circuit is then sawed open at a place which is close to the plane in which we are interested. This is performed with a fine diamond cutter and the closer we are able to reach the desired plane, the fewer steps will be needed to reach it by grinding. Sometimes the chip is cut down to size to minimize the amount of sawing necessary. After the chip has been cut open, we need to grind down to the plane of interest. This is done using silicon carbide paper which is made progressively fine as we proceed. The final stage is to properly polish the specimen to remove all the scratches which occurred in the previous stages. Once the polishing is complete, the plane is properly exposed for further examination – possibly using an electron microscope.

Even though this is a difficult procedure, integrated circuit cross-sectioning is an extremely valuable tool for failure analysis engineers. It allows them to delve into the very guts of the chip to expose defects which were previously only hinted by nondestructive techniques. Click here to find out more.

One of the most useful tools for failure analysis engineers is the scanning electron microscope. The basic function is to bombard an integrated circuit with electrons. But this simple act has a large number of side effects which can prove useful in many ways. For example, the bombardment causes the release of what are known as characteristic x-rays which give us an accurate picture of the composition of the material. Yet another side effect is the phenomenon of Auger electrons that provide us with even more material for the analysis of the sample in question. Without doubt however, the most important function of a scanning electron microscope is what its name suggests – taking perfectly clear and intricately detailed photographs.

A traditional optical microscope uses lenses to focus visible light rays onto the sample. Such a technique will not of course work with a beam of electrons, but we can use an array of electromagnetic lenses as a substitute. Now because particles at a subatomic scales exhibit wave particle duality, we can make use of the extremely tiny wavelengths of electrons to generate images far beyond the capacity of an optical microscope. And it's not just a question of detail. An electron microscope produces a picture that is fundamentally different from that provided by a traditional microscope.

Anyone who has taken photographs knows that in a given picture, only one area will be in sharp focus. The foreground and the background will be blurred depending on the distance from the focus subject. These problems with focus can prove to be a real hindrance when you need sharp pictures taken of the surface of an integrated circuit. If the background objects become blurry, it is impossible to clearly see what is wrong. An electron microscope however has a much larger "depth of field" which enables the accurate reproduction of foreground and background objects as well.

The charged nature of the electrons can also be exploited in order to highlight electronic defects which would otherwise be difficult or impossible to see. By placing charges on the area of the integrated circuit that we wish to observe, the interactions of the electrons can create varying levels of contrast which can highlight the defect.

It's important to realize however that the actual act of taking a photograph is just one step in the process of failure analysis. Electron microscopy services necessitate a thorough examination of the circumstances out of which the failure arose so that we can make educated guesses about which sections of the chip to photograph.

When trying to find ways and means of analyzing an integrated circuit, failure analysis engineers make use of every single physical phenomena they can find. The innovative exploitation of such effects is a hallmark of any engineering field and failure analysis makes use of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in order to obtain valuable information about an electronic package. At its heart, the process of using an electron microscope consists of bombarding the sample with a huge number of electrons. Because of the curious way in which particles at subatomic levels behave, we are able to make use of several unintuitive concepts. For example, the tendency of the wave particle duality to express itself at tiny scales allows us to create a microscope that is exponentially more powerful than the ones we normally see which make use of optical light rays. But this is just one example of the many uses of electron bombardment.

A scanning electron microscope is able to provide a phenomenally minute image of the sample. But it doesn't end there. In regular photographs, you will notice that objects much closer or much further away than the focus point are blurred. When regular microscopes take images of samples, this effect prevents researchers from viewing the entire image clearly. Objects in the background or in the foreground of an image taken with an electron microscope however don't suffer from this defect. Indeed, "depth of field" is a hallmark of images taken using this technique.

But as mentioned earlier, producing images is just one of the uses of an electron microscope. The bombardment of the sample with electrons causes it to exude what is known as characteristic x-rays. This happens when one of the impinging electrons displaces one in the shell of an atom. A higher-level electron takes the place of the displaced electron causing it to lose energy to accommodate itself in the lower state. This packet of energy is ejected in the form of a high-frequency photon as an x-ray. An analysis of the sum total of these characteristic x-rays gives us very accurate information as to the composition of the material.

Auger spectroscopy is yet another example of the usefulness of electron bombardment. The breadth of these techniques and the wide variety of applications makes it a very powerful tool in the hands of an experienced failure analysis engineer. The scanning electron microscope is an indispensable instrument in the analysis of defective integrated circuits which in turn helps make all our electronic devices more reliable.

In the process of failure analysis, experts try every method to detect the error without destroying the chip itself. This is because having an intact malfunctioning specimen is far more useful than having it destroyed. We can use the defective chip to act as a benchmark or study it for further reference. Sometimes however we simply cannot avoid destroying the chip in the process of finding out or confirming what has gone wrong. These are called destructive techniques and are used as a last resort. But merely deciding to open up the chip for further examination is the first step. Great care needs to be taken to ensure that the decapsulation proceeds smoothly with minimal damage to surrounding components. This is because we cannot afford to let the process of decapsulation itself spoil the chip in some way which will mislead the failure analysis engineers. Recently we are finding that a process known as laser decapsulation is proving to be one of the best and most reliable ways to cut open a chip.

Laser Decapsulation Equipment

The process of laser decapsulation relies on the extreme precision with which it is possible to apply a laser beam to an integrated circuit. Laser ablation is the process by which a substance is heated with either a pulsed or a continuous laser beam causing it to sublimate away or evaporate. This is a very clean and hassle free way of proceeding with the decapsulation process. Traditional methods require messy steps involving acid which are not only inconvenient but also pose a hazard both to the environment as well as the researchers. In addition, acid etching is imprecise and can cause damage to the surrounding components thereby spoiling the sample and possibly skewing the results as well.

Further benefits of this as a decapsulation process are evident due to the mechanized way in which it can be carried out. With a proper CAD diagram, the entire procedure can be automated with minimal human intervention. Such a convenience is impossible to obtain without something like acid etching.

Finally, laser etching works beautifully with substances such as copper which traditional acid methods have significant difficulty dealing with. The convenience, speed and accuracy of laser ablation is fast making laser decapsulation equipment highly sought after. These improved methods and technologies are just a few ways by which failure analysis engineers are able to improve the reliability and stability of the integrated circuits and chips we take for granted everyday.

In the process of manufacturing, quality testing is an extremely important part of the overall procedure. Many of you have heard of techniques such as six Sigma which use a statistical base in order to try and achieve extremely low rates of defects in the products. But even in the world of manufacturing, integrated circuits hold a special place. They are so ubiquitous that we no longer think about using them. Of course, they are at the heart of every single piece of personal electronics that we use right from our iPod to our PCs and tablets. But they're also found in innumerable mundane electronic devices like your radio and your car. Because of the staggeringly huge number of integrated circuits being pumped out every day, even a miniscule fraction of defects translates into quite a large number. It is therefore critical for us to be able to identify defective chips and more importantly find out what went wrong at the source and correct it. To achieve this, we have to resort to failure analysis services for accurate answers.

Failure analysis engineers utilize a wide range of techniques to analyze chips and get to the heart of the problem. But these techniques are usually applied only after a thorough examination of the chip itself and of the circumstances leading up to the error. Moreover, every defective piece acts as a stepping stone to improving the manufacturing process. These learnings are codified into a structured language which is capable of being passed on to the next generation of scientists so that they won't have to repeat the same mistakes over and over again. In this way, the error rate of integrated circuits keeps going down.

But failure analysis is not a static field. As the demands on our electronic equipments grow, printed circuit boards are becoming more and more dense and complex. In order to keep up with these new advances, we have to go on innovating and maintain the same level of effectiveness. Recent advances are pushing the limits of even electron microscopes and we're getting closer and closer to the theoretical limits of miniaturization of integrated circuits. Whether or not Moore's law is going to hold up in the next decade or so is very much a matter of debate.

What is certain however is that no matter what, failure analysis services will need to raise the bar once again and continue to play the crucial role that they already do in ensuring that our electronic equipment is safe and reliable.

When trying to analyze an integrated circuit to find out what has gone wrong, having a clear and precise image of the tiny electronic components is an immense help. Such a feat cannot be accomplished with a regular microscope. Given the tremendously tiny densities and the extreme level of miniaturization of today's integrated circuits, we need something far more sophisticated than a traditional optical microscope to obtain clear images. Such a device is known as a scanning electron microscope and it has a wide variety of uses – not just in failure analysis. It excels in generating images which would normally be impossible. They're capable of magnifications thousands of times greater than microscopes relying on visible light. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is the technique which makes use of an electron microscope. We will also see that the applications go beyond mere imaging as well.

At subatomic levels, everything has a dual nature. Entities behave like waves as well as particles. This has interesting implications for science since we can make use of this contradictory nature for our purposes. Bombarding an integrated circuit with electrons in a particular way allows us to exploit their wavelike nature to obtain extremely high resolutions. As an added bonus, the images have an unusual depth of field. With a regular optical microscope, particles in the background or in the foreground tend to lose focus. This limits the usefulness of such a microscope when trying to take images of a topographically complicated surface. Pictures generated by an electron microscope don't suffer from this defect.

In addition to startling image clarity, we can make use of several additional side effects to obtain secondary information from the sample. The electron bombardment can cause the displacement of an electron from an inner shell of the atom leading one of the electrons in a higher orbital to take its place. This can lead to the ejection of an x-ray which can be captured. The analysis of the signature x-rays from a sample can give us an extremely precise measurement of the elements from which the integrated circuit is made up. These x-rays are known as characteristic x-rays. Even more side effects are available in the form of techniques such as Auger Spectroscopy.

As you can see, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) has a wide variety of benefits. Experienced failure analysis engineers will be able to make use of these tools to obtain an accurate assessment of what has gone wrong with an integrated circuit.